The Arabs and the Scramble for Africa

John C. Wilkinson [+–]

The University of Oxford, (Retired)

John C. Wilkinson, D.Litt, is a former Reader at Oxford University and an Emeritus Fellow of St Hugh’s College, Oxford, where he taught from 1969 until his retirement in 1997.

He has advised several governments in the Middle East on their frontier disputes, including as Counsel for Bahrain in Qatar vs Bahrain, the longest running case to have appeared before the International Court of Justice at The Hague. He is author of numerous articles and several books, notably: Water and Tribal Settlement in South-East Arabia (Clarendon Press, 1977), The Imamate Tradition of Oman (Cambridge University Press, 1987), Arabia’s Frontiers (I.B. Tauris, 1991), A Fatal Duel: “Harry Alis” (1857-95), a behind the scenes figure of the early Third Republic (Antony Rowe, 2006) and Ibâdism: Origins and early development in Oman (Oxford University Press, 2010).

European colonial rivalries in Africa is not a subject in vogue today, while the Arabs are still largely viewed as invaders and slavers. The fact that the British separated the Sultanates of Muscat and Zanzibar is reflected in European research so that historians have little grasp of the geographic, tribal and religious continuum that persisted between overseas empire and the Omani homeland. Ibadism is regarded as irrelevant to the mainstream of Islamic religious protest whereas, during the lead up to establishing direct colonial rule, its ideology played a significant role; even the final rally against the Belgians in the Congo was conducted in the name of an Imam al-Muslimîn. Back home, the fall out from the British massacre that crushed the last Arab attempt to reassert independence in Zanzibar was an important contributory cause towards the re-founding of an Imamate that survived until the mid-1950s.

Series: Comparative Islamic Studies

Preliminaries

List of Maps [+–] vii

This book examines the history of the European Scramble for Africa from the perspective of the Omanis and other Arabs in East Africa. It will be of interest not only to African specialists, but also those working on the Middle East, where awareness is now emerging that the history of those settled on the southern peripheries of Arabia has been intimately entwined with Indian Ocean maritime activities since pre-Islamic times. The nineteenth century, however, saw these maritime borderlands being increasingly drawn into a new world economy, one of whose effects was the development of an ivory front in the interior of the continent that, by the 1850s, led the Omanis and Swahili to establish themselves on the Upper Congo. A reconstruction of their history and their interaction with Europeans is a major theme of this book. European colonial rivalries in Africa is not a subject in vogue today, while the Arabs are still largely viewed as invaders and slavers. The fact that the British separated the Sultanates of Muscat and Zanzibar is reflected in European research so that historians have little grasp of the geographic, tribal and religious continuum that persisted between overseas empire and the Omani homeland. Ibadism is regarded as irrelevant to the mainstream of Islamic religious protest whereas, during the lead up to establishing direct colonial rule, its ideology played a significant role; even the final rally against the Belgians in the Congo was conducted in the name of an Imam al-Muslimîn. Back home, the fall out from the British massacre that crushed the last Arab attempt to reassert independence in Zanzibar was an important contributory cause towards the re-founding of an Imamate that survived until the mid-1950s.

Abbreviations and conventions [+–] ix-x

Foreword [+–] xi-xiv

PART I: PRE-SCRAMBLE PERSPECTIVES

1. The Omani perspective: part 1 [+–] 1-40

Chapter contents: Omanis and Swahil; Tribal nisbas; Political relationships between Oman and Africa; The Omani colonial model; The Swahili “city-state” model; Early Arabian contact with East Africa; Oman’s role; The Nabâhina; The Portuguese and the Ya’aruba; The Ya’rubi dynasty; The early Busa’id; The continued Hinawi-Ghafiri rivalry; Control of Muscat: Sayf and Sultan’s rebellions; Ahmad’s succession; The interior; The Ya’aruba legacy in East Africa; The Mazari’a; Tribes Associated with the Ya’aruba and Mazarî’a period; Sd Sa’id first expeditions.

2. The Omani perspective part II: growing British influence [+–] 41-82

Chapter contents: Muscat and Oman; Sd Sa’id’s accession and British intervention; Zanzibar; Sd Sa’id and East Africa; The Hirth and the Sharqiya; The Hirth in East Africa; The alienation of the Hirth; The Nahḏa; Sa’id’s move to Zanzibar; Dhofar and Southern Arabia; The Red Sea and the Ottoman threat; The Hadramis in East Africa; Transformations during Sa’id’s time at Zanzibar; The developing economy; The Zanzibar entrepot; Plantation agriculture; Sa’id’s legacy; The Banians; Foreign Relations Britain and France; Ibadism in East Africa; Conversion; The ulema and the Ibadi tradition; Slavery; Ibadism and slavery; Colonial exploitation of the anti-slavery movement

3. The early Arab penetration into the African mainland [+–] 83-115

Chapter contents: The central corridor; The Nyamwezi; The area South-West of Lake Tanganyika: The Arab disaster; Uganda; Tabora; The double crossing of Africa by an Arab party; Members of the expedition; Sa‘îd b. Habib al-‘Afîfi’s early expeditions; Identifications; Ujiji; The Congo pioneers; Mughayri’s introduction; Jum’a Merikani; The drive to the frontier: Ivory; The Omani Manyema expedition; The Expedition; Commentary: The historical facts; Locations and African identifications; Nyangwe and the Kabambare route: The Ujijian horde; The Nyangwe massacre; Mohara’s expedition; Kibonge and Kirundu; Conclusion; The dating of the expedition

4. Oman and Zanzibar: Britain and France [+–] 116-141

Chapter contents: Situation after Sd Sa’id’s death; Sa’id’s Will; Franco-British rivalry: The engagés libres; The Muscat reaction; Rigby’s role; Barghash and the Hirth; The Canning Award; The Award; The Franco-British Treaty of 1862; Rigby’s departure; Continued Franco-British tension; Application of the Canning Award; Oman; Sur and the Wahhabis; The Imamate of ‘Azzan b. Qays;

5. Barghash’s reign: the first dozen years [+–] 142-170

Chapter contents: Barghash’s accession; The confrontation with Churchill; Kirk replaces Churchill; Sds Turki and ‘Abd al-‘Aziz; Revision of the slave trade treaty; Barghash’s advisers; Bâ Qashmar; Barghash’s reign; Pemba; Barghash as Sultan; Mirambo and Tabora; The developing European influence in the interior at the beginning of the 1880s; Egypt <

6. The mainland [+–] 171-204

Chapter Contents: Egypt and the Sudan; Reorganization of the Bahr al-Ghazal; Equatoria and the Interlacustrine region (Uganda); The Arabs of Uganda; Religious rivalry; The Egyptian confrontation with Mtesa; The Egypto-Zanzibari frontier; Emin’s missions to Buganda and Bunyoro; Emin and Equatoria; The Arabs; Tippo-Tib (Hamad b. Muhammad al-Murjabi); Verney Lovett Cameron (1844–1894); Jum’a Merikani; Kasongo; Tippo-Tib and Stanley; Tippo-Tib’s account: The missing years; The return to the coast; Muhammad b. Khalfan al-Barwani (Rumaliza); Uvinza

7. AIC phase I [+–] 205-227

Chapter contents: Origins: The Association Internationale Africaine (AIA); The First AIA Expedition; Leopold and Stanley; Further AIA Expeditions; Relations with the Arabs; AIA expeditions and sovereignty in Eastern Africa; The Congo; Stanley and de Brazza; Stanley’s move up the Congo; Andrew Bennie; Tippo-Tib’s return; The situation at Falls; The emergence of an Arab policy; The eviction of the EIC from Falls; Tippo-Tib’s Position; The EIC’s desertion of Falls; Effects; The Arab Zone

PART II: ENTER GERMANY

8. German colonization in East Africa [+–] 231-245

Chapter contents: The development of a German Colonial Movement; East Africa: DKG/DOAG; The Colonial Debate in the Reichstag; The diplomatic scene and the Berlin Conference; The West African Conference; Agreement with AIC>EIC; New territorial claims; Britain’s interest in Effective Occupancy; The exclusion of Zanzibar from the Berlin Congress; Kiliminjaro; French interests in Zanzibar

9. Confrontation [+–] 246-269

Chapter contents: First indications of the German threat; Britain and France outmanoeuvred; German Objectives; German Tactics; The Sultan’s reactions; Franco-British appeasement of Germany; DKG’s new moves; Pre-emptive moves; The German thesis of the Sultan’s rights; Local Tactics; The birth of the Boundary Commission; Showdown; The Delimitation Commission; The French Commissioner; Sell out; The Comoros; DKG/DOAG; Anglo-German agreement

10. The Swahili uprising [+–] 270-288

Chapter contents: Barghash’s final years; The British and German spheres; Barghash at Muscat; The succession; DOAG Concession and Mrima Uprising; The British sphere; Sd Khalifa’s role; The Pangani letter: Swahili society; The centres of rebellion; Bushiri; The missionaries; Wissmann; The “Arab” campaign; Muhammad b. Qasim;

PART III: THE ETAT INDEPENDANT DU CONGO

11. The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition (EPRE): part 1 [+–] 291-309

Chapter contents: Leopold’s Nile ambitions; The Ubangui; The changing political picture; Terra incognita; Emin’s plight; Mounting the expedition; Leopold’s aims from the expedition; The arrangement with Tippo-Tib; The British role and Tippo-Tib’s own initiatives; The deal with Tippo-Tib; The expedition’s progress; The porterage contract;

12. The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition: part II [+–] 310-340

Chapter contents: The rear column and Tippo-Tib; The porters fail to rendezvous with the EPRE; Arab opposition to Tippo-Tib; Arab operations round Yambuya; Renewed efforts by Barttelot to advance; Tippo-Tib’s intentions; Vankerckhoven’s arrival; The demise of the Rear Column; Jameson’s attempts to remount the expedition; Stanley’s reactions; Jameson; The accusations against Tippo-Tib and the Arabs; Leopold’s new plans; Stanley’s action against Tippo-Tib over the Rear Column; The EPRE starts for the coast; Anglo-German rivalry: The Uganda Imbroglio; Buganda; Mtesa; Mwanga; The EPRE in Uganda; Mwanga retakes Buganda; Peters and Jackson; A Tippo-Tib expedition for IBEAC?; Emin’s duplicity; Anglo-German tension elsewhere in eastern Africa; The Anglo-German (Heligoland) Treaty; French reactions

13. EIC: consolidation of state: the Arab Zone [+–] 341-361

Chapter contents: Trivier’s account; The Anti-Slavery movement; Cardinal Lavigerie’s Missions; Leopold and Lavigeri; National Mouvements Antiesclavagistes; The Leopold-Mackinnon agreement; Brussels anti-slavery conference; Agreement with the Belgian State; Frontier policy; Katanga; The North East; Commercial Results; State expansion and financial crisis; The Matadi-Leopoldville Railway; Labour shortages; Raubwirtschaft; Eliminating the opposition; The ivory decree; The state monopoly;

14. The Arab Zone [+–] 362-396

Chapter contents: The Arab Zone: EIC relations with Tippo-Tib (1887–1890); Relations up to mid-1888; The Vangele and Vankerckhoven reports; Vankerchoven’s understanding with Tippo-Tib; The Ubangui; The Becker Mission; The new deal with Tippo-Tib; Anti-European feeling; The changing relationhip with the Arab Zone; Pro- and anti-Arab schools; The missionaries: Lavigerie; The pro-Arab school; Ad hoc policy; Encirclement; The MA (Mouvements Antieslavagistes = Anti-Slavery Societies) expeditions; Hinck and Jacques expeditions; Formal policy instructions; Inconsistencies in applying State policy; Nicholas Isidore Tobback (1859–1905); Incentives: Force Publique; The Tippo-Tib labour contract; Arab Ivory Trade; German protests; EIC anti-Arab sentiment; First skirmishes; The Vankerckhoven and Vangele expeditions; Vankerchoven’s Advance; The presentation of the expedition to the outside world;

15. First clashes [+–] 397-421

Chapter contents: The Hodister massacre; Relations in the Arab Zone; State expansion into the Arab zone; The Hodister expedition; Michiels’s prospection; Nyangwe; Mserera; Tobback’s visit upstream; The “Massacre”; Consequences; The Lake Tanganyika area; Jacques expedition; Mutual recriminations; Emin Pasha; The background to Emin’s expedition; The conduct of the expedition; The standard Belgian account of Emin’s death; Stuhlmann; Dorsey Mohun’s evidence; Sa’id b. ‘Abed’s role; Evaluation

16.War [+–] 422-435

Chapter Contents: Dhanis; Military tactics; Fighting between the Lomami and Lualaba; Chaltin: The Lomami; The situation at Falls; Final stages (1893); Rumaliza; Aftermath

17. ENVOI: Zanzibar 1896 [+–] 436-444

Chapter contents: Khalid b. Barghash and the succession; ‘Ali’s reign; France; Zanzibar and Oman; Khalid’s coup; Aftermath

End Matter

Appendix: Arab Materials in Belgian Archives [+–] 445-446

Maps [+–] 447-455

Map 1 East Africa Map 2 Tribal map of Oman Map 3 European knowledge of central Africa in mid-1885 Map 4 The “Conventional” Congo Basin and the Free Trade Zone following the Berlin Congress, 1885 451 Map 5 The EIC-French Congo boundary as defined in the Berlin Congress (the Ubangui dispute) Map 6 The Route of the EPRE as published on Stanley’s return (1890) by Le Mouvement Géographique Map 7 The Etat Indépendant du Congo 1892 (Le Mouvement Géographique 2 October 1892) Map 8 The Arab Zone

References Including Select Bibliography [+–] 456-471

Indexes [+–] 473-497

Reviews

A dense and richly detailed investigation... operates incredibly well on the historical and sociological level for all those interested in this time period, this geographic region, this aspect of international dispute and engagement, and finally, this particular people. ...it is hard to find fault with this book. A work such as this begs for others to utilize it as a foundation for future work .. and it is clearly crucial for international affairs, politics, intelligence, and diplomacy. Summing up: Highly recommended. All readership levels.
CHOICE August 2015, Vol. 52 No.

[An] excellent, brilliantly researched, and highly erudite text. Those who are familiar with the history of Oman and East Africa will rejoice in the minute details that Wilkinson provides, while fans of Wilkinson’s earlier work will see how it fits within the overall intellectual trajectory of one of the great historians of Oman.
The Journal of Arabian Studies

John Wilkinson [is] one of the leading scholars of Oman and the Gulf... Where [this book] parts company with the usual imperial histories of these events is that it gives the Omanis real agency in the process rather than treating them as sort of hapless placeholders waiting for the Europeans to show up and brush them aside. This too is a positive step and will give non-Arab readers a window on Omani maneuvering and motives during this period that would not otherwise be available to them.
International Journal of African Historical Studies

Wilkinson’s work is a compulsory read for anyone who is interested in African/Islamic History or anyone who wishes to have good historical insight into Arab/Omani activities in Africa.
African Historical Review

Overall this is a comprehensive narration of “forgotten histories” of imperialism in Africa and will be indispensable for specialists in the field of nineteenth century East Africa. It is an invaluable companion to classic work on the subject from Abdul Sheriff, Fred Cooper and Jon Glassman.
Journal of World History

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The Arabs and the Scramble for Africa

John C. Wilkinson [+–]

The University of Oxford, (Retired)

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